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ÜDS İNGİLİZCE DERS 5 - Adjectives
The term adjective can be used to refer to any word that modifies a noun. Now we will discuss three aspects of adjectives: their comparative and superlative forms, how adjectives can be derived from the present and past participle forms of verbs, and the sequence and punctuation of multiple adjectives.
“True” adjectives are noun modifiers that have the following four characteristics:
1. They immediately precede the nouns they modify (and thus follow all other pre-noun modifiers).
2. They have comparative and superlative forms.
3. They can be used as predicate adjectives.
4. They are an “open class.”
To better understand the difference between adjectives (as defined here) and other types of pre-noun modifiers, look at the following sentence with all noun modifiers in italics:
All the brave soldiers deserve medals.
1. The adjective brave immediately precedes the noun soldiers. The other two noun modifiers cannot be placed in between the adjective brave and the noun soldiers:
X All brave the soldiers deserve medals.
X The brave all soldiers deserve medals.
2. Only brave has comparative and superlative forms:
Comparative: braver
Superlative: bravest
3. Only brave can be used as a predicate adjective:
All those soldiers are brave.
X All brave soldiers are the.
X? The brave soldiers are all.
The last example is marginally grammatical, but only if all is used as an indefinite pronoun meaning “everything.”
4. Finally, of all the pre-noun modifiers, only adjectives are an
“open” class. That is, we can create new adjectives. For example,
in computer jargon, lossy (rhymes with bossy) is an adjective that
describes programs that degrade data when the program is run, as
in the following sentences:
That is a very lossy program. (modifying adjective)
This program is lossier than that program. (comparative
adjective)
His company’s program is lossy. (predicate adjective)
Articles and all other pre-adjective noun modifiers are “closed”
classes. That is, there have not been any new articles or other pre-adjective
modifiers added to English in hundreds of years (nor are
there likely to be any new ones for hundreds of years to come).
Comparative and Superlative Forms of Adjectives
One-syllable adjectives tend to use the Old English way of forming comparatives
and superlatives-with -er and -est. Three-syllable adjectives
always use a translated version of the French way of forming the comparative
and superlative-with more and most. Here are some examples:
One Syllable Three Syllables
brave, braver, bravest
ambitious, more ambitious, most ambitious
calm, calmer, calmest
beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful
nice, nicer, nicest
generous, more generous, most generous
smart, smarter, smartest
impatient, more impatient, most
impatient
Two-syllable adjectives pose a problem. Some two-syllable adjectives use the -er/-est pattern, while other two-syllable adjectives use the more/most pattern. Some, such as polite, can even be used in either pattern:
Jane is politer than Mary. Jane is the politest person in her class.
Jane is more polite than Mary. Jane is the most polite person in her class.
Here are some useful generalizations about which pattern to use.
-er /-est
Two-syllable adjectives that end in an unstressed vowel sound tend to use the -er /-est pattern. Two-syllable adjectives ending in le and y are especially common. For example:
le: able, feeble, gentle, noble, simple
y: dopy, early, easy, happy, funny, noisy, wealthy, pretty, tacky
Adjective Comparative Superlative
simple simpler simplest
early earlier earliest
happy happier happiest
Notice that the spelling of comparative and superlative forms of adjectives that end in y follow a rule similar to the rule that governs the plural form of nouns that end in y: change the y to i and add -er or -est.
More/Most
Two-syllable adjectives that are stressed on the second syllable tend to use the more/most pattern. For example:
Adjective Comparative Superlative
alert more alert most alert
bizarre more bizarre most bizarre
precise more precise most precise
secure more secure most secure
Irregular Comparative and Superlative Forms
A few irregular comparatives and superlatives survive from older forms of English:
Adjective Comparative Superlative
bad worse worst
good better best
The adjective far is peculiar in that it has two sets of comparative and superlative forms with slightly different meanings:
Adjective Comparative Superlative
far farther farthest
far further furthest
We use farther and farthest for distance in space. For example:
Please take the farthest seat.
We use further and furthest for all other kinds of sequences or progressions. For example:
Are there any further questions?
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ÜDS İNGİLİZCE DERS 4 - Possessive Forms of Nouns
Modern English is a hybrid of two languages: Old English (Anglo-Saxon) and French. Reflecting this mixed heritage, Modern English has two ways of forming the possessive: the Old English way, which uses an inflectional ending ( ’s and s’), and an of possessive that is a kind of loan-translation of the French way of forming the possessive. Here is an example of each:
Inflectional possessive: Shakespeare’s plays
Of possessive: the plays of Shakespeare
Inflectional Possessives
It is essentially a historical accident that the regular plural and the possessive inflections are pronounced exactly alike, with the same sibilant sounds. Up until the sixteenth century, the plural and the possessives were also spelled alike: -s. During the sixteenth century, however, the apostrophe began to be used for the possessive ending to distinguish it from the
plural ending. For example:
Plural Possessive
boys boy’s
girls girl’s
friends friend’s
The use of the apostrophe after the -s to signal the possessive use of a plural noun did not become widely accepted until the nineteenth century:
Plural Plural Possessive
boys boys’
girls girls’
friends friends’
While it is correct to call -s’ the “plural possessive,” it is a mistake to think of the -’s as the “singular possessive.” The problem with this definition arises with the possessive forms of irregular nouns that become plural by changing their vowel rather than by adding a plural -s. For example:
Singular Plural
Noun Possessive Noun Possessive
man man’s men men’s
woman woman’s women women’s
child child’s children children’s
As you can see, -’s is used with these plural possessive nouns, not -s’. Using the -s’ with these nouns would mean (incorrectly, of course) that the /s/ is what makes these nouns plural. What actually makes them plural is the change in their vowels. A much better way to think of plurals and possessive is as follows:
Possessive Both Plural
Plural Only Only and Possessive
-s -’s -s’
This analysis will help ensure that you will always use the right form. Mercifully, the spelling of the possessive forms is regular (though there are a few exceptions for proper nouns, which are discussed later in this section). Here are some examples using words that form their plurals in different ways.
WORDS ENDING IN A CONSONANT + Y
Singular Plural
Noun Possessive Noun Possessive
baby baby’s babies babies’
family family’s families families’
WORDS ENDING IN O
Singular Plural
Noun Possessive Noun Possessive
ego ego’s egos egos’
memo memo’s memos memos’
hero hero’s heroes heroes’
volcano volcano’s volcanoes volcanoes’
Notice that in the last two examples, the singular possessive and the plural forms are spelled differently.
WORDS ENDING IN F
Singular Plural
Noun Possessive Noun Possessive
thief thief’s thieves thieves’
wolf wolf’s wolves wolves’
The possessives of some proper nouns ending in a sibilant sound are often spelled with just an apostrophe. For example:
In Jesus’ name (this spelling is conventional)
Ramses’ tomb
Charles Dickens’ novels
Kansas’ main city
The Meaning of the Inflectional Possessive. As its name would suggest, the possessive is most commonly used to show ownership or possession.
For example:
Ralph’s car
My family’s house
However, the possessive is used in many other meanings, the two most important being relationships and measurement:
Relationships
Ralph’s neighbor (Ralph does not own his neighbor.)
My family’s doctor (The family does not own the doctor.)
Measurement
Time: an hour’s delay; a week’s postponement; two years’ duration
Value: the euro’s value; the dollar’s decline; five dollars’ worth
Of Possessive
While the inflectional possessive and the of possessive mean the same thing, they are not always interchangeable. For example:
Inflectional possessive: Sarah’s taxi
Of possessive: X the taxi of Sarah
Inflectional possessive: X a soup’s bowl
Of possessive: a bowl of soup
Let us use the term possessive noun to refer to both (a) nouns that can have inflectional possessive ’s or s’, and (b) nouns that follow of. In the first of the preceding examples, the possessive noun would be Sarah. In the second example, the possessive noun would be soup.
Here is a general rule that will help you decide which form of the possessive noun to use:
If the possessive noun is animate, use the inflectional possessive.
If the possessive noun is inanimate, use the of possessive.
Here are some examples with animate possessive nouns:
Inflectional Of Possessive
the gentleman’s hat X? the hat of the gentleman
the cat’s dish X the dish of the cat
our family’s house X the house of our family
Here are some examples with inanimate possessive nouns:
Of Possessive Inflectional
a map of Australia X? Australia’s map
a glass of water X water’s glass
the back of the room X the room’s back
As with most broad generalizations, the rule about possessives is overly black-and-white. The first part, which says that animate nouns require the inflectional possessive, does seem to hold true. The real problem is with the second part, which says that inanimate nouns use only the of possessive.
We can (but do not have to) use the inflectional possessive with the following types of inanimate nouns:
Inanimate possessive nouns that are a product of human creation. For example:
Inflectional Of Possessive
the ecomony’s growth the growth of the economy
the performance’s success the success of the performance
the game’s rules the rules of the game
Natural phenomena. For example:
Inflectional Of Possessive
the storm’s damage the damage of the storm
the tide’s surge the surge of the tide
the sun’s glare the glare of the sun
the earth’s climate the climate of the earth
Possessive nouns that express location or time. For example:
Inflectional Of Possessive
the city’s population the population of the city
the river’s bank the bank of the river
this year’s profits the profits of this year
today’s lesson the lesson of today
When the inflectional and of possessive forms are both grammatical, there are still stylistic differences between them.
In general, the inflectional forms are somewhat less formal, and the of possessive forms are more formal. For example, if you were writing a report, you would probably choose the population of the city rather than the city’s population as the title of a section.
Everything else being equal, the inflectional possessive implies shared or previous knowledge, while the of possessive does not. For example, compare the following:
Inflectional: We met Jim’s friend last night.
Of possessive: We met a friend of Jim’s last night.
The inflectional sentence implies that the listener already knows who Jim’s friend is. The of possessive sentence implies that the listener is not expected to know who Jim’s friend is.
Double Possessive
We use a special form of the possessive when the possessive noun is a personal pronoun or an animate noun. This construction is sometimes called a double possessive or double genitive. The pronoun or animate noun is itself used in the possessive form.
If the possessive is a pronoun, the pronoun must be in the possessive pronoun form (as opposed to the possessive adjective form). For example, compare the following possessive nouns:
In object form: X He is a friend of me.
In possessive adjective form: X He is a friend of my.
In possessive pronoun form: He is a friend of mine.
If the possessive noun is an animate noun (most commonly a proper noun), we have the option of using the possessive form or not. For example:
He is a friend of Sam.
He is a friend of Sam’s.
He was a contemporary of Mozart.
He was a contemporary of Mozart’s.
It is a policy of the company.
It is a policy of the company’s.
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ÜDS İNGİLİZCE DERS 3 - Irregular Plurals of English Origin
Seven words form their plural by a vowel change alone:
Singular Plural
foot feet
goose geese
louse lice
man men
mouse mice
tooth teeth
woman women
Note: In addition to the usual plural form feet, the noun foot has a second plural form, foot, when we use the word to refer to length or measurement.
For example:
I bought a six-foot ladder.
He is six foot three inches tall.
Some words ending in f form their plurals by changing the f to v and adding -es. Here are the most common words that follow this pattern:
Singular Plural
half halves
knife knives
leaf leaves
life lives
loaf loaves
self selves (also the plural themselves)
thief thieves
wolf wolves
Some words have a plural form that is identical to their singular form. Most of these words refer to animals or fish. For example:
Singular Plural
a cod two cod
a deer two deer
a fish two fish
a sheep two sheep
a shrimp two shrimp
a trout two trout
Since the singular and plural forms of these nouns are identical, the actual number of the noun can be determined only by subject-verb agreement or by the use of an indefi nite article. For example:
Singular: The deer was standing in the middle of the road.
Plural: The deer were moving across the field.
Singular: I saw a deer in the backyard.
Plural: I saw some deer in the backyard.
If one of these words is used as an object with a definite article, then the number is inherently ambiguous. For example:
Look at the deer! (one deer or many deer?)
Two words retain the old plural ending -en:
Singular Plural
child children
ox oxen
Irregular Plurals of Latin Origin. English uses thousands of words of Latin origin. In formal or scientific writing, the original Latin forms of the plural are often used. While the irregularity of Latin grammar is almost beyond belief, there are two patterns that are regular enough to merit our attention:
Plurals of Latin words ending in -us. The plurals of these words typically end in -i. For example:
Singular Plural
alumnus alumni
focus foci
locus loci
stimulus stimuli
syllabus syllabi
Plurals of Latin words ending in -um. The plurals of these words typically end in -a. For example:
Singular Plural
addendum addenda
curriculum curricula
datum data (See note.)
memorandum memoranda
spectrum spectra
stratum strata
Note: Data is often used as a kind of collective singular except in formal scientific papers. For example: The data is very clear in this matter.
Plural-Only Nouns. Some plural nouns have no corresponding singular form at all or else have a singular form that differs substantially from the meaning of the plural. One group of plural-only nouns refers to tools or articles of clothing that have two equal parts joined together:
Tools: bellows, binoculars, (eye)glasses, forceps, pincers, scissors, sheers, spectacles, tongs, tweezers
Clothing: braces, briefs, flannels, jeans, pants, pajamas, shorts, slacks, suspenders, tights, tops, trousers, trunks
Here are some other plural-only nouns with idiomatic meanings:
accommodations (living arrangements)
funds (money)
arms (weapons)
guts (courage)
brains (intellect)
looks (appearance)
communications (means of communication)
manners (behavior)
credentials (records or documents)
pains (trouble, effort)
customs (duty)
wits (intelligence)
A few plural-only nouns have no plural marking: cattle, livestock, poultry, people, police. Here are some examples with the plural verb underlined:
The police are investigating the crime.
People were beginning to talk.
Collective Nouns
Collective nouns refer to groups of people either individually or collectively. Here are some examples:
audience
class
committee
government
team
Logically, we can think of a team, for example, as being either a unit (singular) or a group of individuals (plural). In American English, collective nouns are almost always treated as singular nouns; in British English, collective nouns are almost always treated as plural nouns. For example, compare the following sentences with the verbs underlined:
American: The team is on the field.
British: The team are on the field.
American: The American government has announced a new policy.
British: Her Majesty’s government have announced a new policy.
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ÜDS İNGİLİZCE DERS 2 - Common Nouns
Common nouns refer to persons, places, things, and ideas (abstractions).
Here are some examples:
Persons: student, women, reporter, father, employee
Places: city, river, mountains, forest, sidewalk
Things: computer, book, water, elephant
Ideas: justice, love, friendship, honesty, respect
Common nouns are divided into two main categories: non-count and count. Non-count nouns are nouns that cannot be used in the plural. The term non-count refers to the fact that these nouns are literally not countable; that is, they cannot be used with number words. Most common nouns are count nouns; they can be counted and used in the plural. The distinction between non-count and count nouns is of particular importance in determining which article to use.
Non-count Nouns
Many non-count nouns are generic names for categories of things. For example, the non-count noun luggage is a generic or collective term that refers to an entire category of objects that we use for carrying things while we travel, such as backpacks, briefcases, handbags, suitcases, and valises. The generic noun luggage is not countable, while all of the specific nouns are countable:
Non-count: X one luggage, two luggages
Count: one backpack, two backpacks
one briefcase, two briefcases
one handbag, two handbags
one suitcase, two suitcases
Most non-count nouns fall into one of ten semantic categories:
Abstractions: beauty, charity, faith, hope, knowledge, justice, luck, reliability
Academic fields: anthropology, chemistry, economics, literature, physics
Food: butter, cheese, chicken, pepper, rice, salt
Gerunds (-ing verb forms used as nouns): hoping, running, smiling, winning
Languages: Arabic, Chinese, English, Russian, Spanish
Liquids and gases: beer, blood, coffee, gasoline, water, air, oxygen
Materials: cement, glass, gold, paper, plastic, silk, wood, wool
Natural phenomena: electricity, gravity, matter, space
Sports and games: baseball, chess, football, poker, soccer, tennis
Weather words: fog, pollution, rain, snow, wind
Many non-count nouns can be used as count nouns but with a predictable shift in meaning-to convey something like “different kinds of.” Here are some examples:
gasoline-non-count: The price of gasoline is outrageous. (liquid)
gasoline-count: The station sells three gasolines. (different grades of gasoline)
Spanish-non-count: I am learning Spanish. (language)
Spanish-count: There are several Spanishes in America. (different kinds of Spanish)
cheese-non-count: I love cheese. (food)
cheese-count: The store sells a variety of cheeses. (different kinds of cheese)
Some non-count nouns have count noun counterparts but with different meanings. Here are some examples:
iron-non-count: The chain is made of iron. (material)
iron-count: The hotel will provide irons. (electric appliances for pressing clothes)
paper-non-count: Books are made of paper. (material)
paper-count: I left my papers on the desk. (documents)
chicken-non-count: Chicken is a heart-healthy meat. (food)
chicken-count: There were a dozen chickens in the yard. (living animals)
coffee-non-count: Too much coffee makes me nervous. (liquid)
coffee-count: We would like two coffees, please. (cups or servings of coffee)
Plural Forms of Count Nouns
The distinctive feature of count nouns is that they can be used in the plural. Most nouns form their plural with -(e)s, but there are also a number of irregular plural forms. Most irregular plurals are either nouns of English origin that have retained older ways of forming the plural or Latin words that have retained their Latin plurals. In addition, there are a small number of plural-only nouns, and finally there is a difference between British and American English on whether collective nouns are singular or plural.
Regular Plurals. The regular plural is most often written as -s. For example:
Singular Plural
cat cats
dog dogs
llama llamas
If the regular plural is pronounced as a separate syllable, the regular plural is spelled -es. For example:
Singular Plural
batch batches
bench benches
box boxes
class classes
wish wishes
There are two special spelling rules for regular plurals:
Words ending in a consonant + y. When a word ends in a consonant + y, the plural is formed by the following rule:
CHANGE THE Y TO I AND ADD -ES
Singular Plural
baby babies
family families
lady ladies
story stories
However, if the word ends in a vowel plus y, the preceding rule does not apply, because the letter y is does not represent a separate vowel. The y is part of the spelling of the vowel and therefore cannot be changed:
Singular Plural
boy boys
key keys
subway subways
Words ending in a consonant + o. There are two spellings for words that end in a consonant + o. In one group, the plural is formed by adding -s in the normal way. In a second group, the plural is formed by adding -es. Unfortunately, there is no way to predict the group to which any particular word belongs. You simply have to look up each word ending in a consonant
+ o. Here are some examples of each group:
-s Plurals -es Plurals
Singular Plural Singular Plural
ego egos hero heroes
kilo kilos potato potatoes
memo memos tomato tomatoes
zero zeros volcano volcanoes
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ÜDS İNGİLİZCE DERS 1 - Nouns
Proper nouns are the names of specific individuals; common nouns are the names of categories. The third section describes how we form possessive nouns.
Proper Nouns
Here are some examples of proper nouns:
Specific persons: Dorothy, Miss Marple, Senator Smith, Uncle Fred
Specific places: Chicago, Jordan, Red Sea, Mount Olympus
Specific things: New York Times, Microsoft Corporation
Capitalization of Proper Nouns
The most obvious feature of proper nouns is that they are capitalized. However, the conventions of capitalization are anything but simple. Here are some of the more important capitalization rules for persons, places, and things:
Capitalization of Persons. Capitalize all parts of the name, including Jr. and Sr.:
Fred Smith Sr.
Martin Luther King Jr.
When civil, military, religious, and professional titles precede a name and are used as part of the name, they are capitalized:
General Patton
Pope Benedict XVI
President Bush
However, if the title follows the name or is used to talk about a person, then the title is considered a common noun and is not capitalized. For example, compare the following:
Proper noun: Governor Schwarzenegger was reelected.
Common: Arnold Schwarzenegger, the governor of California, was an actor.
Common: Arnold Schwarzenegger is the governor of California.
The names of groups of people (linguistic, religious, racial) are normally capitalized. For example:
Catholics
Chinese
Latinos
Capitalization of Places. Geographical terms (for example, street, river, ocean) that are part of a name are also capitalized. For example:
Atlantic Ocean
Great Barrier Reef
Deep Creek
Lake Erie
Elm Street
Mississippi River
Empire State Building
Rocky Mountains
The names of distinct regions are usually capitalized. For example:
Mid Atlantic
the South
the Midwest
Southeast Asia
Popular names of places are usually capitalized (and not enclosed in quotation marks). For example:
Badlands (South Dakota)
Eastern Shore (Chesapeake Bay)
Bay Area (California)
Fertile Crescent
Strangely enough, words derived from geographical names are generally not capitalized. For example:
china (dishes)
plaster of paris
french fries
venetian blinds
Capitalization of Things. The complete names of private and public organizations of all kinds are capitalized. For example:
Cheney High School
Peace Corps
Green Bay Packers (football team)
Xerox Corporation
New York Philharmonic
The names of historical, political, and economic events are generally capitalized. For example:
Boston Tea Party
New Deal
Great Depression
The names of acts, treaties, laws, and government programs are generally capitalized. For example:
Declaration of Independence
Marshall Plan
Federal Housing Act
Monroe Doctrine
The names of months and the days of the week are capitalized, but not the names of the seasons. For example:
fall
summer
February
Wednesday
spring
winter
Plural Forms of Proper Nouns
Plural proper nouns are uncommon, not because there is any grammatical restriction on them, but because we rarely need to use them. Here are some examples of plural proper nouns:
We have had three hot Julys in a row.
The Smiths went to the beach this weekend.
There are two New Yorks, one for the rich and another for the rest of us.
Do not use an apostrophe for the plural of proper nouns. For example:
X We have known the Johnson’s for a long time.
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